lc@thrivewithdiabetes.com

 

Notes to Part III

1 Professor Emeritus Robert S. Horn obtained his PhD in pharmacology at Jefferson

Medical College in Philadelphia. He then moved on to the University of Pennsylvania and

studied for 5 years under Dr. Niels Hauggard as a post-doctoral fellow. Dr. Horn moved to

Oslo, Norway, in 1970, and worked as a research fellow in the laboratory of Otto Walaas.

He received an assistant professorship in 1972, and was appointed full professor in 1985.

Dr. Horn was chairman of the Department of Medical Biochemistry at the University of

Oslo from 1988 to 1997. His main areas of interest have been nutrition and diabetes. He

has organized and partaken in many international meetings and published around 30

research articles in these fields. Dr. Horn established the website http://www.medbio.info

in 2002. Medbio is his way to present an updated insight into metabolism, exercise and

diabetes for students, colleagues and the public. Recently he has launched

http://www.sugars4kids as an experiment aimed at presenting material about nutrition

for teenagers.

2 See the section “Our Ancestors Ate Too...” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved on

3/2/08.

3 See the section “Control of Blood Sugar” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved on

3/2/08.

4 See the section “Are carbohydrates good food” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved on

3/2/08. This section also delves into the chemical properties of the different sugars.

5 Glucose 6-phosphate (also known as Robison ester) is glucose sugar phosphorylated on

carbon 6. This compound is very common in cells as the vast majority of glucose entering a

cell will become phosphorylated in this way. Because of its prominent position in cellular

chemistry, glucose 6-phosphate has many possible fates within the cell. It lies at the start of

two major metabolic pathways: Glycolysis and Pentose phosphate pathway. In addition to

these metabolic pathways, glucose 6-phosphate may also be converted to glycogen or

starch for storage. This storage is in the liver and muscles in the form of glycogen for most

multicellular animals, and in intracellular starch or glycogen granules for most other

organisms. Production of glucose 6-phosphate: (1) From glucose: within a cell, glucose 6-

phosphate is produced by phosphorylation of glucose on the sixth carbon. This is catalyzed

by the enzyme hexokinase in most cells, and, in higher animals, glucokinase in certain cells,

most notably liver cells. One molecule of ATP is consumed in this reaction. (2) From

glycogen: Glucose-6-phosphate is also produced during glycogenolysis from glucose-1-

phosphate, the first product of the breakdown of glycogen polymers. See

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose-6-phosphate. Retrieved on 3/8/08. You are

encouraged to learn more about the several distinct but linked metabolic pathways used by

cells to transfer the energy released by breakdown of fuel molecules to ATP. These occur

within all living organisms in some forms: Glycolysis, Anaerobic respiration, Krebs

cycle/Citric acid cycle, Oxidative phosphorylation. Other pathways occurring in (most or)

all living organisms include: Fatty acid oxidation (β-oxidation), Gluconeogenesis, HMGCoA

reductase pathway, Pentose phosphate pathway (hexose monophosphate shunt),

Porphyrin synthesis pathway, and the Urea cycle. Besides Medbio, you can learn more

about the metabolic pathways through such sources as

http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml. Retrieved on 3/8/08. See also

http://nashua.case.edu/PathwaysWeb/. Retrieved on 3/8/08. And see

http://www.metabolicvisualizer.org/. Retrieved on 3/8/08.

6 See http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/08366/h%26p2carb.htm. Retrieved on 3/18/08.

7 For examples of how blood sugar remains stable in normal persons, including one

example of measuring glucose after fasting overnight then after consuming 75 grams of

glucose, see Med Bio at http://www.medbio.info/Horn/Time%203-4/homeostasis1.htm.

Accessed on 3/2/08.

8 See the section “Energy stores in humans” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved on

3/2/08.

9 See Medbio available online at

http://www.medbio.info/Horn/Time%205/Metabolic%20syndrom%20and%20diabetes%

20type%202.htm#Glucose%20is%20toxic. Retrieved on 3/2/08.

10 See the section “Insulin and Glucagon” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved on

3/2/08.

11 See the section “Integration of metabolism” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved on

3/2/08.

12 See the section “Work and energy in muscles” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved on

3/2/08.

13 Dr. Berardi has published over 200 popular press articles for magazines like Men’s

Health, Men’s Fitness, Women’s Health, Muscle and Fitness, Testosterone and more.

Further, Dr. Berardi has authored or co-authored 5 books including: Gourmet Nutrition with

Dr John Williams, Scrawny to Brawny with Mike Mejia, The Grappler’s Guide to Sports

Nutrition with Michael Fry, Precision Nutrition, and The Metabolism Advantage. Dr. Berardi

and the Science Link team have created the following exercise and nutrition related

websites: http://www.precisionnutrition.com; http://www.gourmetnutrition.com;

http://www.scrawnytobrawny.com; http://www.metabolismadvantage.com; and

http://www.johberardi.com.

14 See http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10490. Retrieved on 3/2/08.

15 See the section “Work and energy in muscles” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved on

3/2/08.

16 See for example http://www.pcrm.org/resch/anexp/rats.html. Retrieved on 3/8/08.

See also

http://www.curedisease.com/Perspectives/vol_1_1989/Rats%20to%20Animal%20Models

.html. Retrieved on 3/8/08. For online information on animal testing in general, see

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing. Retrieved on 3/08/08.

17 See Rosenthal N, Brown S. "The mouse ascending: perspectives for human-disease

models," Nat. Cell Biol, Volume 9, issue 9, pp. 993-9, 2007. PMID 17762889. Available

online at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17762889. Retrieved on 3/08/08.

18 See the section “Diet and liver glycogen levels” at http://www.medbio.info. Retrieved

on 3/2/08.

19 Protections for human subjects of research are required under Department of Health and

Human Services (HHS) regulations at 45 CFR 46. Subpart A of the HHS regulations

constitutes the Federal Policy (Common Rule) for the Protection of Human Subjects, which

has been adopted by an additional 16 Executive Branch Departments and Agencies. Each

institution engaged in (non-exempt) HHS-supported human subjects research must

provide a written Assurance of Compliance, satisfactory to the Office for Protection from

Research Risks (OPRR), that it will comply with the HHS human subjects regulations. - 45

CFR 46.103(a)

Institutions conducting (non-exempt) HHS-supported human subjects research must

provide Certification to the supporting agency that the research has been reviewed and

approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) designated under an OPRR-approved

Assurance. Under no circumstances may (non-exempt) human subjects research be

supported prior to Certification. - 45 CFR 46.103(f). Except where the IRB specifically

approves a waiver in accordance with HHS regulations, no investigator may involve a

human being as a subject in (non-exempt) research unless the investigator has obtained the

legally effective informed consent of the subject, or the subject's legally authorized

representative. The meaning of "legally effective" and "legally authorized" is determined in

part by applicable State law. See “Summary of Basic Protections for Human Subjects,”

December 23, 1997, Office for Protection from Research Risks. Available online at

http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/basics.htm. Retrieved on 2/15/08.

20 See “Traditional Diets,” at the Weston Price website online at

http://westonaprice.org/traditional_diets/nasty_brutish_short.html. Retrieved on

3/2/08. Op cit. http://www.medbio.info/. Retrieved on 3/2/08.